July 29, 2003 Grade: A+ Spirit Possession: A Religious Phenomenon The importance of the religious phenomenon that spirit possession has on various cultures around the world is noticed because of the many influential Anthropologists that have written about this topic for centuries. Anthropologists continually argue that there are numerous reasons for why these possessions have such an impact on worshippers. Some of the ideas presented by these anthropologists suggest that spirit possession provides a sense of security. For instance, it provides a feeling of hope, optimism, and well-being to those who practice a religion that incorporates spirit possession. Therefore, because of the positive feelings created through spirit possession, it has become a religious phenomenon among the faith of people such as apostolic healers, the Songhay, the Madagascar culture, the Shamanists, and the Holy Ghost people of St. Vincent. Spirit possession occurs when the presence of external forces transform a human being (Stoller class notes 07/16/03). For instance, spirit possession transforms an afflicted person to behave in socially acceptable ways. These spirits may appear in a variety of forms such as deities, angels, demons, entities, or even the dead. However, it must be remembered that these spirits are not necessary considered to be good, or for that matter, bad. The spirits are lured into the human body in order to communicate with and educate the respective person becoming possessed. This communication, for example, can enter the human body with intentions of helping the dead reach the next realm (Boddy 1988: 10). The purpose or ideology behind this notion cannot be fully explained due to its complexity. As suggested in Walker’s writing, "possession is a complex phenomenon provoked by a concentration of diverse factors working together in different combinations’ (Walker 1972: 147). One of the most important factors of ceremonial possession is the presence of neurophysiologic changes. These changes are produced by sensory bombardment, such as the rhythm of drum. In these ceremonial situations, a group of participants, in close proximities, moves, dances, and sings to the rhythm of the drums in order to manifest the expected presence of the gods. The beating of the drums can cause the effect of ha hallucinations, other sensory distortions and even feeling of strangeness. These factors are given content meaning in ceremonial possession (Walker 1972: 147). Possession is also used to normalize the psychopathology of individuals (Walker 1972: 169). Through the practice of spirit possession, these people are taught to channel their emotions. Possession is usually set off by an onset of certain features. First, the induction of possession is achieved by dancing to music with a specific rhythm. Then, the induction of possession is followed by a period of either breathing or starvation. As a result, this causes the brain waves to slow down. The onset of a possession period is marked by a brief period of inhibition or collapse. Collapse is then followed by hyperactivity. Once this is achieved, controlled, deity-specific behavior patterns emerge. During this state of full possession, tremors of the head or limbs, jerks, and diminution of sensory acuity may be evident. This suggests neurophysiologic changes. Then, the possessed return to normal consciousness and sleep of exhaustion usually follows (Walker 1972: 15). Typically, possession occurs by inheritance of the spirit. For instance, a human possessed by a spirit dies, and consequently, the spirit takes over another being in the lineage. The process of the spirit encompassing a being's body composes of serious symptoms that cannot be cured by native and western civilizations. As a result, one is assumed to possess some sort of discarnate or non-physical being, or spirit. The possessed being, or medium, uses the treatments of trances to cure his or her illness with aid from fellow mediums. The trance allows the medium to form a relationship with the spirit who shares the medium's being. In the societies that practice spirit possession, those mediums are socially emancipated. This allows the beholder to "marry" him or herself to his or her medium (Stoller 1997: 45). The medium is their pride and burden. (Stoller 1997: 49) They are the link between the social and spirit worlds; they are symbols (Stoller 1997: 50). Society is structured according to collective representations determined by the norms of the religious system of the community. The human community is an imitation of the divine (Walker 121). Without mediums, there is no mutual understanding between the social and spirit worlds and the worlds would have no control over the forces of regnant nature (Stoller 1997: 79). The spirits allow the foundation of a subset of social relations that are restrained by rights and obligations in the spirit world (Stoller 1997: 80). Two subsets are that spirit mediumship is inherited genealogically and the spirit mediumship affects the social relationships of the medium’s family. The family does this by sacrificing to the spirit and by acquiring closer social ties with other families that endure the same spirit within the kinship. The family also supports the spirit troupe (Stoller 1997: 80). Society used the spirits for the good of the village to overcome the powers of nature. The Songhay civilizations call on spirits for help when there is drought, famine, or epidemics among the Songhay people. The spirits are very useful and are trusted continuously by the Songhay people, and therefore spirit possession continues to thrive to this day (Onwuejeogwu 1969: 290). Many other people practice spirit possession as well. For example, apostolic healers are the afflicted persons who create a relationship with the Holy Spirit. They do so during their recovery process from being ill. The afflicted person enters into a unique relationship with the Holy Spirit. The Holy Spirit in turn gave the afflicted person, or apostolic healers, powers of prophecy and healing. The apostolic healers acted as mediums in treating the sick. The Holy Spirit guided them to prognosis and therapies of their patients. One method of divination performed by Apostolic Healers was the processes of throwing down a multi-colored cord three times. As it hit the ground, the Healer observed the position of impact. The position told insight to a patient’s condition. To treat their clients, apostolic healers provided counseling and administered remedies prescribed by the Holy Spirit (Niechaus 2001: 35). The Madagascar culture also included possession in their rituals. The possession of spirits, or tromba, favors women over men, and it alters the woman’s life in profound ways. Tromba spirits allow Sakalava to record and interpret historical experience and offer ways to understand how Sakalava perceive the local geography of their ancestral land (Sharp 1993: 115). This notion is seen in Tromba, which “creates a sense of belonging, a social cohesiveness that is unmatched by other local institutions (Sharp 1993: 171).” Tromba also preserves records of royal genealogies, which provided shorthand account of the succession of royalty (Sharp 1993: 115). When a woman experiences tromba, first she may experience shifts in her identity and shifts in her social relations. This enables her to redefine her social status and gain local power structures (Sharp 1993: 171). As a medium, the woman elevates her social status when she becomes a healer. This shift is a shift from a commoner to that of royal personality (Sharp 1993: 172). If a medium is possessed at a ceremony, this means she is surrounded by tromba spirits who are related to her possessing spirit. She becomes that spirit when she is possessed (Sharp 1993: 184). Spirits grow rich by working as healers. The spirit may give insight on the origins of the illness and may prescribe herbal medicines within a healing ritual (Sharp 1993: 172). Being a healer brings prestige, fame, and income. Being a healer is also an idealistic social position to hold for ceremonial rituals and for offering explanations and solving misfortune. Some types of trance are interpreted as possession by spirits (Spiro 1965: 40). Trance is "a sleeplike state marked by reduced sensitivity to stimuli, loss or alteration of knowledge of what is happening, substitution of automatic for voluntary activity (Spiro 1965: 41)." Trances may be hypnotically induced, and severe forms of trance resemble comas. Trance is practiced among the Shamanists of Northern Asia (Spiro 1965: 41). When the Holy Spirit touches the worshipper, the shiver from the presence is felt by the worshipper and the worshipper stiffens and then begins to shake. The spirit fills the worshipper with joy, causing him/her to shake and speak in tongues. (Henney 1974: 59) Although, possession occurs often in several individuals, where each person acts as an individual, it can also occur as a group phenomenon. In this case, the first sign of possession may be determined by a jerk in one or both arms. In addition, it could also be marked by a shudder, shiver, trembling, shout, sob, hiss, or sounds (Henney 1974: 61). When a person becomes possessed by means of trance, personal interactions with the Spirit are remembered, but nothing else. After the trance is over, the worshipper accrues well-being, strength, and relaxation (Henney 1974: 65). The shakers, or those who fall into trance, behave as if they are superior to normal beings, for they feel that they are representing God. (Henney 1974:100) This religion, referred to as Shakerism, features a divine inspiration, which could be significant to society. (Henney 1974: 101) Henney claims "It provides its members with ritual context within which to demonstrate their putative superiority, to improve their identity image, and to discharge built-up frustrations in religious activities (Henney 1974: 102)." Possession has a positive effect in society for both individual and positive reasons. The social value has been discussed and culturally controlled possession contributes to the mental health of the people. It also provides a sense of security to the individuals involved. All of its possessors gain the attributes they desire, and it fulfills the satisfaction of the people as well. Without spirit possession, various cultures across the world would have no hope, no answers, no healing. However, thankfully enough, spirit possession is a widely spread religious phenomenon that will flourish for centuries to come. Works Cited Boddy, Janice, Spirits and Selves in Northern Sudan: The Cultural Theraputics of Possession and Trance. American Ethnologist 1988. Goodman, Felicitas D., Jeannette H. Henney, and Esther Pressel. Trance, Healing and Hullucination. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1974. Niechaus, Isak. Anthropology, Culture and Society: Withcraft, Power and Politics. Sterling, VA: Pluto P, 2001. Onwuejeogwu, Michael, The Cult of the “Bori” Spirits Among the Hausa, New York: Anchor Books, 1969. Sharp, Lesley A. The Possessed and the Dispossessed: Spirits, Identity, and Power in a Madagascar Migrant Town. Berkeley : University of California Press, 1993. Spiro, Melford E. Context and Meaning in Cultural Anthropology. New York: The Free P, 1965. Stoller, Paul. Fusion of the Worlds: An Ethnography of Possession among the Songhay of Niger. Chicago: The University of Chicago P, 1997. Walker, Sheila S. Ceremonial Spirit Possession in Africa and Afro-America. Netherlands: Leiden. 1972. |